complex words

COMPLEX WORDS
1. Definition:
A word made up of two or more morphemes. Contrast with simple word.
Complex words is all the word which consist of one freemorph and one or more boundmorph.
The complex word is the root word with either another stand alone word or with the attachment of a prefix or suffix.
For example : lock + able = lockable
or un + lock = unlock
Comlpex word may consist of (1) a base (or root) and one or more affixes (for example, quicker), or (2) more than one root in a compound (for example, blackbird).
"A morphologically complex word is semantically transparent if its meaning is obvious from its parts: hence 'unhappiness' is semantically transparent, being made up in a predictable fashion from 'un,' 'happy,' and 'ness.' A word like 'department,' even though it contains recognizable morphemes, is not semantically transparent. The meaning of 'depart' in 'department' is not obviously related to the 'depart' in 'departure.' It is semantically opaque."
(Trevor A. Harley, The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory. Taylor & Francis, 2001)
"Let us consider the complex word blender. What can we say about its morphology? One aspect we can mention is that it consists of two morphemes, blend and er. Besides, we can say that blend is the root, since it is not further analysable, and at the same time the base to which the suffix -er is attached. To conclude, if we carry out morphological analysis, we usually show what morphemes a word consists of and describe these morphemes in terms of their type."
(Ingo Plag et al, Introduction to English Linguistics. Walter de Gruyer, 2007)
COMPLEX WORD is a word consisting of a base and one or more derivational elements: unlikely (un-, like, -ly); vitality (vit-, -al, -ity). In origin and structural type, there are four kinds of complex word in English: (1) Vernacular. Formed on ‘native’ principles, but including some long-established words of Latin, GREEK, and French background: darkness, womanhood, beefy, priestly. Such words may have equivalents in the GERMANIC LANGUAGES : English unmanly, German unmännlich. (2) Romance. Formed on Latinate principles. Many such words are structurally (though not phonologically) identical or similar in English and the Romance languages: English impossible, discrimination; French impossible, discrimination; SPANISH impossible, discriminación. (3) Greek. Formed on principles adapted from classical Greek through NEO-LATIN. Many such words are structurally similar in English and Greek: English dogmatic, magnetism, Greek dogmatikós, magnetismós. (4) Hybrid. A mix of the above: uncreative mixes vernacular un- with Latin cre- and -ative; ethically mixes Greek eth- and -ic with Latin -al and vernacular -ly. See COMBINING FORM, COMPOUND-COMPLEX WORD, DERIVATIONAL, PREFIX, SUFFIX, WORD-FORMATION.
Words in English presents a comprehensive account of present-day word formation in English. Starting with a discussion of some basic issues, including the definition of 'word', motivation, lexicalization, productivity, the relevance of historical information and the usefulness of dictionaries and other data-bases, the book then moves on to describe in detail a variety of prefixing, suffixing and compounding patterns - all illustrated with copious up-to-date examples. Other topics that are explored in-depth include diminutives, backformation and other effects of reanalysis, Latin and Greek based formations and sound symbolism.
Years spent editing articles written by attorneys (whose writing is purposefully vague) and physicians (whose writing is full of specialized language) have taught me the value of using simple words in place of complex ones.
The use of unfamiliar or complex terms interferes with comprehension and slows readers down. Readers may even skip terms they don’t understand, hoping to find their meaning in the rest of the sentence.
Readers are not impressed by the use of complex words; they’re frustrated by them. Take “use” and “utilize.” According to the Oxford Dictionaries, the word “use” means, “take, hold, or deploy (something) as a means of accomplishing a purpose or achieving a result.” While “utilize” means to “make practical and effective use of.” And though there is a distinction between the two words, there is rarely an occasion to use “utilize” instead of “use.”
2. A list complex terms
Here is a list of some other complex terms and their simpler alternatives.

Advantageous — helpful
Ameliorate — improve
Cognizant — aware
Commence — begin, start
Commensurate — equal
Consolidate — combine
Deleterious — harmful
Disseminate — issue, send
Endeavor — try
Erroneous — wrong
Expeditious — fast
Facilitate — ease, help
Inception — start
Implement — carry out
Leverage — use
Optimize — perfect
Prescribed — required
Proficiencies — skills
Promulgate — issue or publish
Proximity — near
Regarding — about
Remuneration — reward, payment
Subsequently — after or later
Although I try to use simpler words in my own writing, doing so is not always possible. Sometimes I need a complex word to communicate a more precise meaning. Other times, complex words cannot be avoided due to the subject matter. As a general rule, I use simpler words as the basis of my writing and save the more complex words for when they’re absolutely necessary—or if I’m trying to impress another editor.
The study reported here examined the manner in which children represent morphologically complex words in the lexicon. Children in grades 1 to 5 completed a fragment completion task to assess the priming effects of morphologically related words. Both inflected and derived words (e.g. needs and needy, respectively) were more effective primes than control words (e.g. needle) that share similar orthography and phonology with the target word (e.g. need). These effects were consistent across the developmental period studied. Further, equivalent priming effects from the inflected and derived forms suggest that these word types are represented similarly in the developing lexicon.
PMID: 18416867
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Italian speakers tend to stress the second component of German morphologically complex words such as compounds and prefix verbs even if the first component is lexically stressed. To improve their prosodic phrasing an automatic pronunciation teaching method was developed based on auditory feedback of prosodically corrected utterances in the learners' own voices. Basically, the method copies contours of F0, local speech rate, and intensity from reference utterances of a German native speaker to the learners' speech signals. It also adds emphasis to the stress position in order to help the learners better recognise the correct pronunciation and identify their errors.
This study explored whether the length of a complex word modifies the role of morphological structure in lexical processing: Does morphological structure play a similar role in short complex words that typically elicit one eye fixation (e.g., eyelid) as it does in long complex words that typically elicit two or more eye fixations (e.g., watercourse)? Two eye movement experiments with short vs. long Finnish compound words in context were conducted to find an answer to this question. In Experiment 1, a first-constituent frequency manipulation revealed solid effects for long compounds in early and late processing measures, but no effects for short compounds. In contrast, in Experiment 2, a whole-word frequency manipulation elicited solid effects for short compounds in early and late processing measures, but mainly late effects for long compounds. A race model, incorporating a headstart for the decomposition route, in case whole-word information of complex words cannot be extracted in a single fixation can explain the pattern of results.
Keywords: Morphological processing; Eye movements; Word length; Finnish; Compound words
3. Parts of complex words
Complex/ˈkɒmpleks/
▶adjective
• 1 consisting of many different and connected parts.
• 2 not easy to understand; complicated.
• 3 Mathematics (of a number) containing both a real and an imaginary part.
▶noun
• 1 an interlinked system; a network.
■ a group of similar buildings or facilities on the same site.
• 2 Psychoanalysis a related group of repressed or partly repressed emotionally significant ideas which lead to abnormal mental states or behaviour.
■ informal a feeling of disproportionate anxiety about something.
• 3 Chemistry an ion or molecule in which one or more groups are linked to a metal atom by coordinate bonds.
▶verb Chemistry make (an atom or compound) form a complex with another.
– DERIVATIVES
complexation noun (Chemistry),
complexity noun (pl. complexities),
complexly adverb.
– ORIGIN C17 (as n.): from L. complexus, from complectere ‘embrace, comprise’, later assoc. with complexus ‘plaited’; the adjective is partly via Fr. complexe.
Concise Oxford English Dictionary © 2008 Oxford University Press.


On Simple Theories of a Complex World
by Willard Van Orman Quine
Written in 1960 for J. H. Woodger's seventieth birthday. In company with other such papers, it appeared in "Synthese" (Volume 15, 1963), and afterward in J. R. Gegg and F. T. C. Harris, eds., "Form and Strategy in Science" (Dodrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1964). Subsequently reprinted in Quine's own "The Ways of Paradox" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1966).]
It is not to be wondered that theory makers seek simplicity. When two theories are equally defensible on other counts, certainly the simpler of the two is to be preferred on the score of both beauty and convenience. But what is remarkable is that the simpler of the two theories is generally regarded not only as the more desirable but also as the more probable. If two theories conform equally to past observations, the simpler of the two is seen as standing the better chance of confirmation in future observations. Such is the maxim of the simplicity of nature. It seems to be implicitly assumed in every extrapolation and interpolation, every drawing of a smooth curve through plotted points. And the maxim of the uniformity of nature is of a piece with it, uniformity being a species of simplicity.
Simplicity is not easy to define. But it may be expected, whatever it is, to be relative to the texture of a conceptual scheme. If the basic concepts of one conceptual scheme are derivative concepts of another, and vice versa, presumably one of two hypothesis could count as simpler for the one scheme and the other for the other. This being so, how can simplicity carry any peculiar presumption of objective truth? Such is the implausibility of the maxim of the simplicity of nature.
Corresponding remarks apply directly to the maxim of the uniformity of nature, according to which, vaguely speaking, things similar in some respects tend to prove similar in others. For again similarity, whatever it is, would seem to be relative to the structure of one’s conceptual scheme or quality space. Any two things, after all, are shared as members by as many classes as any other two things; degrees of similarity depend on which of those classes we weight as the more basic or natural.
Knowledge of morphologically complex words such as derived nominals and derived adjectives is a late linguistic attainment. Given the importance of these words for academic success, instructional programs are needed to ensure that children and adolescents are able to learn their meanings using appropriate strategies.
John Stonham introduces new data from the morphology of the Nuuchahnulth language of Vancouver Island, Canada. It is the first such study of any language within the Wakashan family and will prove an important tool for researchers in Native American languages and to theoretical linguists interested in the numerous complex morphological phenomena encountered in this language family. Notorious for its extremely complex morphological structure, Nuuchahnulth provides instances of a number of important theoretical issues which have arisen recently in morphological theory. These include (i) the nature and extent of incorporation, and specifically a wide range of types of incorporation-like properties; (ii) reduplication, including affix-triggered reduplication and the challenge which double reduplications in Nuuchahnulth pose for constraint-based approaches such as Optimality Theory; (iii) templatic morphological structures, utilized in a number of areas of Nuuchahnulth grammar and involving a number of patterns; and (iv) the issue of the status of the word itself, a long-standing debate in the linguistic literature.






4. Diagram of complex words:

Complex words

Affix word compound word

Stem word + an affix Made of two or more words
E.g. ice-cream, armchair
Prefix+stem Stem+suffix
Un+pleasant Good + ness
Unpleasant Goodness

This study examined to what extent advanced and beginning readers, including dyslexic readers of Dutch, make use of morphological access units in the reading of polymorphemic words. Therefore, experiments were carried out in which the role of singular root form frequency in reading plural word forms was investigated in a lexical decision task with both adults and children. Twenty-three adult readers, 37 8-year-old children from Grade 3, 43 11-year-old children from Grade 6, and 33 11-year-old dyslexic readers were presented with a lexical decision task in which we contrasted plural word forms with a high versus low frequency of the singular root form. For the adults, it was found that the accuracy and speed of lexical decision is determined by the surface frequency of the plural word form. The frequency of the constituent root form played a role as well, but in the low-frequency plural words only. Furthermore, a strong developmental effect regarding the accuracy and speed of reading plural word forms was found. An effect of plural word form frequency on word identification was evidenced in all groups.
The singular root form frequency also had an impact of the reading of the plural word forms. In the normal reading and dyslexic children, plurals with a high-frequency singular root form were read more accurately and faster than plurals with a low singular root frequency. It can be concluded that constituent morphemes have an impact on the reading of polymorphemic words. The results can be explained in the light of a word experience model leaving room for morphological constituency to play a role in the lexical access of complex words as a function of reading skill and experience and word and morpheme frequency.
from Applied Psycholinguistics




CONCLUSION

A word made up of two or more morphemes. Contrast with simple word.
Complex words is all the word which consist of one freemorph and one or more boundmorph.

The complex word is the root word with either another stand alone word or with the attachment of a prefix or suffix.
For example : lock + able = lockable
COMPLEX WORD is a word consisting of a base and one or more derivational elements: unlikely (un-, like, -ly); vitality (vit-, -al, -ity).



TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.Definition .......................................................................................... 1
2.A list complex terms ......................................................................... 3
3.Parts of complex words .................................................................... 5
3.1. On simple Theories of a complex words ................................... 7
4. Diagram of complex words .............................................................. 9
5. Conculsion ....................................................................................... 12


created: sunny's group

pentingnya teori dalam belajar

A. PENGERTIAN TEORI

Teori adalah serangkaian bagian atau variabel, definisi, dan dalil yang saling berhubungan yang menghadirkan sebuah pandangan sistematis mengenai fenomena dengan menentukan hubungan antar variabel,dengan maksud menjelaskan fenomena alamiah.
Labovitz dan Hagedorn mendefinisikan teori sebagai ide pemikiran “pemikiran teoritis” yang mereka definisikan sebagai “menentukan” bagaimana dan mengapa variable-variabel dan pernyataan hubungan dapat saling berhubungan.
Kata teori memiliki arti yang berbeda-beda pada bidang-bidang pengetahuan yang berbeda pula tergantung pada metodologi dan konteks diskusi. Secara umum, teori merupakan analisis hubungan antara fakta yang satu dengan fakta yang lain pada sekumpulan fakta-fakta . Selain itu, berbeda dengan teorema, pernyataan teori umumnya hanya diterima secara "sementara" dan bukan merupakan pernyataan akhir yang konklusif. Hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa teori berasal dari penarikan kesimpulan yang memiliki potensi kesalahan, berbeda dengan penarikan kesimpulan pada pembuktian matematika.
Teori dalam ilmu pengetahuan berarti model atau kerangka pikiran yang menjelaskan fenomena alami atau fenomena sosial tertentu. Teori dirumuskan, dikembangkan, dan dievaluasi menurut metode ilmiah. Teori juga merupakan suatu hipotesis yang telah terbukti kebenarannya. Manusia membangun teori untuk menjelaskan, meramalkan, dan menguasai fenomena tertentu (misalnya, benda-benda mati, kejadian-kejadian di alam, atau tingkah laku hewan). Sering kali, teori dipandang sebagai suatu model atas kenyataan. Sebuah teori membentuk generalisasi atas banyak pengamatan dan terdiri atas kumpulan ide yang koheren dan saling berkaitan.




B. Prinsip Dasar Dalam Penerapan Teori :
a. Belajar dan berkembang adalah aktivitas sosial dan kolaboratif
b. Menjadi pemandu dalam penyusunan kurikulum dan pelajaran
c. Pembelajaran disekolah harus dalam konteks yang bermakna, tidak boleh dipisahkan dari pengetahuan anak-anak yang dibangun dalam ‘dunia nyata’ mereka
d. Pengalaman anak diluar sekolah, harus dihubungkan dengan pengalaman mereka disekolah.

C. Pentingnya Teori

Tiga hal yang perlu diperhatikan jika kita ingin mengenal lebih lanjut tentang teori adalah:
2. Teori merupakan suatu proporsi yang terdiri dari konstrak yang sudah didefinisikan secara luas sesuai dengan hubungan unsur-unsur dalam proporsi tersebut secara jelas.
3. Teori menjelaskan hubungan antar variable sehingga pandangan yang sistematik dari fenomena yang diterangkan variabel-variabel tersebut dapat jelas.
4. Teori menerangkan fenomena dengan cara menspesifikasikan variable yang saling berhubungan.
Teori belajar berfungsi memberikan pemahaman mengenai sifat dan keterkaitan berbagai aspek dalam belajar dan pembelajaran. Dalam hal ini teori belajar mengkaji konsep mengenai aspek perilaku Manusia yang terlibat dalam belajar dan pembelajaran, serta lingkungan yang terkait. Sebagaimana dijelaskan bahwa perilaku murid terkait dengan konsep-konsep tentang pengamatan dan aktifitas psikis (intelegensi, berfikir,motivasi), gaya belajar, individual defferencies, dan pola perkembangan individu. Sedangkan perilaku guru terkait dengan pengelolaan pembelajaran kelas, metode, pendekatan, dan model mengajar. Lebih lanjut, aspek lingkungan yang terkait dan berperan dalam aktifitas belajar-pembelajaran yakni lingkungan sosial dan instrumental.

Di samping fungsi pemahaman, teori belajar berfungsi memberikan prediksi-prediksi berkenaan saling terlibatnya aspek-aspek dalam belajar-pembelajaran. Terjadinya perubahan dalam satu aspek akan berpengaruh pada aspek lainnya. Misalnya, tingkat intelegensi dan motivasi individu dapat dipergunakan untuk memprediksikan prestasi belajar yang akan dicapai. Selanjutnya, keadaan fisik dan kondisi psikologis anak dapat memprediksikan kemungkinan kesulitan yang akan ditemui dalam proses belajarnya. Dengan demikian, guru dapat melakukan upaya-upaya pemberian bantuannya.



Fungsi pengendalian atau mengontrol terkait dengan manipulasi yang mungkin dibuat. Tentu kita memahami bahwa pengetahuan anak tentang lingkungan tempat tinggal diperoleh dari mata pelajaran Pengetahuan Sosial (IPS). Bilamana ada di antara topik-topik tertentu tidak diajarkan, maka mereka tidak memiliki pengetahuan tentang topik-topik itu. Guru dapat merekayasa sekelompok anak yang diberi perlakuan tertentu (IPS), sedangkan sekelompok yang lain tidak, sehingga dapat diketahui perbedaan hasilnya. Dengan demikian, pengetahuan murid mengenai pengetahuan sosial dikontrol dengan pembelajaran IPS.

Fungsi teori belajar rekomendatif. Sebagai ilmu terapan, teori belajar tidak hanya memberikan wawasan konseptual terkait dengan fenomena belajar-pembelajaran, tetapi menyediakan sejumlah rekomendasi untuk praktik pembelajaran. Meskipun rekomendasi tersebut berupa rambu-rambu umum, tidak secara akurat berkonsekuensi dengan masalah yang dihadapi guru. Rekomendasi tidak secara langsung ditujukan pada kasus per kasus masalah pembelajaran, tetapi saran dan pertimbangan rekomendatif yang diajukan diharapkan tetap dapat dijadikan pedoman bagi guru untuk mengambil keputusan instruksionalnya.
Rekomendasi dalam pengambilan keputusan itu dikaitkan dengan komponen pembelajaran. Mengenai hal ini, Gage & Berliner menggolongkannya menjadi lima hal utama, yaitu: dalam menentukan dan mengorganisasikan tujuan pembelajaran; memahami karakteristik murid; memahami bagaimana belajar itu terjadi dan upaya membangkitkan motivasi murid; memilih dan melaksanakan metode pembelajaran efektif; dan melaksanakan penilaian yang tepat.

Dengan demikian, psikologi belajar dapat membantu guru untuk memahami bagaimana individu belajar, yang tercakup di dalamnya adalah pengertian dan ciri-ciri belajar serta bentuk dan jenis belajar. Dengan mengetahui individu belajar maka kita dapat memilih cara yang lebih efektif untuk membantu memberikan kemudahan, mempercepat, dan memperluas proses belajar individu.

D. Macam-Macam Teori Dalam Pembelajaran

1. Teori behavioristik
Mengatakan bahwa belajar adalah perubahan tingkah laku. Seseorang dianggap telah belajar sesuatu jika ia telah mampu menunjukkan perubahan tingkah laku. Pandangan behavioristik mengakui pentingnya masukan atau input yang berupa stimulus dan keluaran atau output yang berupa respons. Sedangkan apa yang terjadi di antara stimulus dan respons dianggap tidak penting diperhatikan sebab tidak bisa diamati dan diukur. Yang bisa diamati dan diukur hanyalah stimulus dan respons. Penguatan (reinforcement) adalah faktor penting dalam belajar. Penguatan adalah apa saja yang dapat memperkuat timbulnya respons. Bila penguatan ditambahkan (positive reinforcement) maka respons akan semakin kuat. Demikian juga jika penguatan dikurangi (negative reinforcement) maka respons juga akan menguat. Tokoh-tokoh penting teori behavioristik antara lain Thorndike,Watson,Skiner,Hull,danGuthrie.
Aplikasi teori ini dalam pembelajaran, bahwa kegiatan belajar ditekankan sebagai aktifitas yang menuntut siswa untuk mengungkapkan kembali pengetahuan yang sudah dipelajari. Penyajian materi pelajaran mengikuti urutan dari bagian-bagian ke keseluruhan. Pembelajaran dan evaluasi menekankan pada basil, dan evaluasi menuntut sate jawaban benar. Jawaban yang benar menunjukkan bahwa siswa telah menyelesaikan tugas belajarnya.

2. Teori Belajar Kognitif
Pengertian belajar menurut teori kognitif adalah perubahan persepsi dan pemahaman, yang tidak selalu berbentuk tingkah laku yang dapat diamati dan dapat diukur. Asumsi teori ini adalah bahwa setiap orang telah memiliki pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang telah tertata dalam bentuk struktur kognitif yang dimilikinya. Proses belajar akan berjalan dengan balk jika materi pelajaran atau informasi baru beradaptasi dengan struktur kognitif yang telah dimiliki seseorang. Di antara para pakar teori kognitif, paling tidak ada tiga yang terkenal yaitu Piaget, Bruner, dan Ausubel. Menurut Piaget, kegiatan belajar terjadi sesuai dengan pola tahap-tahap perkembangan tertentu dan umur seseorang, serta melalui proses asimilasi, akomodasi dan equilibrasi. Sedangkan Bruner mengatakan bahwa belajar terjadi lebih ditentukan oleh cara seseorang mengatur pesan atau informasi, dan bukan ditentukan oleh umur. Proses belajar akan terjadi melalui tahap ¬tahap enaktif, ikonik, dan simbolik. Sementara itu Ausubel mengatakan bahwa proses belajar terjadi jika seseorang mampu mengasimilasikan pengetahuan yang telah dimilikinya dengan pengetahuan baru. Proses belajar akan terjadi melalui tahap-tahap memperhatikan stimulus, memahami makna stimulus, menyimpan dan menggunakan infonnasi yang sudah dipahami. Dalam kegiatan pembelajaran, keterlibatan siswa secara aktif amat dipentingkan. Untuk menarik minat dan meningkatkan retensi belajar perlu mengkaitkan pengetahuan baru dengan struktur kognitif yang telah dimiliki siswa. Materi pelajaran disusun dengan menggunaka pola atau logika tertentu, dari sederhana ke kompleks. Perbedaan in¬dividual pada diri siswa perlu diperhatikan, karena faktor ini sangat mempengaruhi keberhasilan belajar siswa.

3. Teori Belajar Konstruktivistik
Usaha mengembangkan manusia dan masyarakat yang memiliki kepekaan, mandiri, bertanggungjawab, dapat mendidik dirinya sendiri sepanjang hayat, serta mampu berkolaborasi dalam memecahkan masalah, diperlukan layanan pendidikan yang mampu melihat kaitan antara ciri-ciri manusia tersebut, dengan praktik-praktik pendidikan dan pembelajaran untuk mewujudkannya. Pandangan konstruktivistik yang mengemukakan bahwa belajar merupakan usaha pemberian makna oleh siswa kepada pengalamannya melalui asimilasi dan akomodasi yang menuju pada pembentukan struktur kognitifnya, memungkinkan mengarah kepada tujuan tersebut. Oleh karena itu, pembelajaran diusahakan agar dapat memberikan kondisi terjadinya proses pembentukan tersebut secara optimal pada diri siswa.
Proses belajar sebagai suatu usaha pemberian makna oleh siswa kepada pengalamannya melalui proses asimilasi dan akomodasi, akan membentuk suatu konstruksi pengetahuan yang menuju pada kemutakhiran struktur kognitifnya. Guru-guru konstruktivistik yang mengakui dan menghargai dorongan diri manusia/siswa untuk mengkonstruksikan pengetahuannya sendiri, kegiatan pembelajaran yang dilakukannya akan diarahkan agar terjadi aktivitas konstruksi pengetahuan oleh siswa secara optimal.





Karakteristik pembelajaran yang dilakukannya adalah:
a. Membebaskan siswa dari belenggu kunkulum yang berisi fakta-fakta lepas yang sudah ditetapkan, dan memberikan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk mengembangkan ide-idenya secara lebih luas.
b. Menempatkan siswa sebagai kekuatan timbulnya interes, untuk membuat hubungan di antara ide-ide atau gagasannya, kemudian memformulasikan kembali ide-ide tersebut, serta membuat kesimpulan-kesimpulan.
c. Guru bersama-sama siswa mengkaji pesan-pesan penting bahwa dunia adalah kompleks, di mana terdapat bermacam-macam pandangan tentang kebenaran yang datangnya dari berbagai interpretasi.
d. Guru mengakui bahwa proses belajar serta penilaiannya merupakan suatu usaha yang kompleks, sukar dipahami, tidak teratur, dan tidak mudah dikelola.

5. Teori Belajar Humanistik
Menurut teori humanistik tujuan belajar adalah untuk memanusiakan manusia. Proses belajar dianggap berhasil jika siswa telah memahami lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri. Dengan kata lain, siswa telah mampu mencapai aktualisasi diri secara optimal. Teori humanistik cenderung bersifat eklektik, maksudnya teori ini dapat memanfaatkan teori apa saja asal tujuannya tercapai.
Beberapa tokoh penganut aliran humanistik di antaranya adalah;
a. Kolb dengan konsepnya tentang empat tahap dalam belajar, yaitu; pengalaman konkret, pengalaman aktif dan reflektif, konseptualisasi, dan eksperimentasi aktif.
b. Honey dan Mumford, menggolongkan siswa menjadi 4 yaitu; aktifis, reflektor, teoris, dan pragmatis.
c. Hubermas, membedakan 3 macam atau tipe belajar yaitu; belajar teknis, belajar praktis, dan belajar emansipatoris.
d. Bloom dan Krathwohl, dengan 3 kawasan tujuan belajar yaitu; kognitif, psikomotor, dan afektif.
e. Ausubel, walaupun termasuk juga ke dalam aliran kognitifisme, ia terkenal dengan konsepa belajar bermakna (Meaningful learn¬ing).
Aplikasi teori humanistik dalam kegiatan pembelajaran cenderung mendorong siswa untuk berpikir induktif. Teori ini juga amat mementingkan faktor pengalaman dan keterlibatan siswa secara aktif dalam belajar.

6. Teori Belajar Sibernetik
Teori belajar sibernetik merupakan teori belajar yang relatif baru dibandingkan teori-teori belajar lainnya. Teori ini berkembang sejalan dengan perkembangan teknologi dan ilmu informasi. Menurut teori sibernetik belajar adalah pemrosesan informasi. Teori ini lebih mementingkan sistem informasi dari pesan atau materi yang dipelajari. Bagaimana proses belajar akan berlangsung sangat ditentukan oleh sistem informasi dari pesan tersebut. Oleh sebab itu, teori sibernetik berasumsi bahwa tidak ada satu jenispun cara belajar yang ideal untuk segala situasi. Sebab cara belajar sangat ditentukan oleh sistem informasi.
Teori ini telah dikembangkan oleh para penganutnya, antara lain seperti pendekatan-pendekatan yang berorientasi pada pemrosesan informasi yang dikembangkan oleh Gage dan Berliner, Biehler dan Snowman, Baine, serta Tennyson. Bahwa proses pengolahan informasi dalam ingatan dimulai dari proses penyandian informasi (encoding), diikuti dengan penyimpanan informasi (storage), dan diakhiri dengan mengungkapkan kembali informasi-informasi yang telah disimpan dalam ingatan (retrieval). Ingatan terdiri dari struktur informasi yang terorganisasi dan proses penelusuran bergerak secara hirarkhis, dari informasi yang paling umum dan inklusif ke informasi yang paling umum dan rinci, sampai informasi yang diinginkan diperoleh.Konsepsi Landa dengan model pendekatannya yang disebut algoritmik dan heuristik mengatakan bahwa belajar algoritmik menuntut siswa untuk berpikir sistematis, tahap demi tahap, linear, menuju pada target tujuan tertentu, sedangkan belajar heuristik menuntut siswa untuk berpikir devergen, menyebar ke beberapa target tujuan sekaligus.
Pask dan Scott membagi siswa menjadi tipe menyeluruh atau wholist, dan tipe serial atau serialist. Mereka mengatakan bahwa siswa yang bertipe wholist cenderung mempelajari sesuatu dari yang paling umum menuju ke hal-hal yang lebih khusus, sedangkan siswa dengan tipe serialist dalam berpikir akan menggunakan cara setahap demi setahap atau linear.
Aplikasi teori pengolahan informasi dalam pembelajaran antara lain dirumuskan dalam teori Gagne dan Briggs yang mempreskripsikan adanya:
1) kapabilitas belajar
2) Peristiwa pembelajaran
3) Pengorganisasian atau urutan pembelajaran.










E. Prinsip Dasar Dalam Penerapan Teori :
a. Belajar dan berkembang adalah aktivitas sosial dan kolaboratif
b. Menjadi pemandu dalam penyusunan kurikulum dan pelajaran
c. Pembelajaran disekolah harus dalam konteks yang bermakna, tidak boleh dipisahkan dari pengetahuan anak-anak yang dibangun dalam ‘dunia nyata’ mereka
d. Pengalaman anak diluar sekolah, harus dihubungkan dengan pengalaman mereka disekolah.










created: fred and antonio pertapa

compound words

WORKING THROUGH

A.   Compound formation rules vary widely across language types.

In a synthetic language, the relationship between the elements of a compound may be marked with a case or other morpheme. For example, the German compound Kapitänspatent consists of the lexemes Kapitän (sea captain) and Patent (license) joined by an -s- (originally a genitive case suffix); and similarly, the Latin lexeme paterfamilias contains the archaic genitive form familias of the lexeme familia (family). Conversely, in the Hebrew language compound, the word בֵּית סֵפֶר bet sefer (school), it is the head that is modified: the compound literally means "house-of book", with בַּיִת bayit (house) having entered the construct state to become בֵּית bet (house-of). This latter pattern is common throughout the Semitic languages, though in some it is combined with an explicit genitive case, so that both parts of the compound are marked.

Agglutinative languages tend to create very long words with derivational morphemes. Compounds may or may not require the use of derivational morphemes also. The longest compounds in the world may be found in the Finnic and Germanic languages. In German, extremely extendable compound words can be found in the language of chemical compounds, where in the cases of biochemistry and polymers, they can be practically unlimited in length. German examples include Farbfernsehgerät (color television set), Funkfernbedienung (radio remote control), and the jocular word Donaudampfschifffahrtsgesellschaftskapitänsmütze (Danube steamboat shipping company Captain's hat).

In Finnish there is no theoretical limit to the length of compound words, but in practice words consisting of more than three components are rare. Even those can look mysterious to non-Finnish, take hätäuloskäytävä (emergency exit) as an example. Internet folklore sometimes suggests that lentokonesuihkuturbiinimoottoriapumekaanikkoaliupseerioppilas (Airplane jet turbine engine auxiliary mechanic non-commissioned officer student) would be the longest word in Finnish, but evidence of it actually being used is scant and anecdotic at best.

Compounds can be rather long when translating technical documents from English to some other language, for example, Swedish. "Motion estimation search range settings" can be directly translated to rörelseuppskattningssökintervallsinställningar; the length of the words are theoretically unlimited, especially in chemical terminology.

B.    A common semantic classification of compounds yields four types:

a.    An endocentric compound consists of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and modifiers, which restrict the is meaning. For example, the English compound doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the modifier, is understood as a house intended for a dog. Endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech (word class) as their head, as in the case of doghouse. (Such compounds were called tatpuruṣa in the Sanskrit tradition.)

b.    Exocentric compounds (called a bahuvrihi compound in the Sanskrit tradition) are hyponyms of some unexpressed semantic head (e.g. a person, a plant, an animal...), and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. For example, the English compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing. In an exocentric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. For example, a must-have is not a verb but a noun. The meaning of this type of compound can be glossed as "(one) whose B is A", where B is the second element of the compound and A the first. A bahuvrihi compound is one whose nature is expressed by neither of the words: thus a white-collar person is neither white nor a collar (the collar's colour is a metaphor for socioeconomic status). Other English examples include barefoot and Blackbeard.

c.    Copulative compounds are compounds which have two semantic heads.

d.    Appositional compounds refer to lexemes that have two (contrary) attributes which classify the compound.

Type	Description	Examples
Endocentric	A+B denotes a special kind of B	darkroom, smalltalk
Exocentric	A+B denotes a special kind of an unexpressed semantic head	skinhead, paleface (head: 'person')
Copulative	A+B denotes 'the sum' of what A and B denote	bittersweet, sleepwalk
Appositional	A and B provide different descriptions for the same referent	actor-director, maidservant

C.   Noun–noun compounds

Most natural languages have compound nouns. The positioning of the words (i. e. the most common order of constituents in phrases where nouns are modified by adjectives, by possessors, by other nouns, etc.) varies according to the language. While Germanic languages, for example, are left-branching when it comes to noun phrases (the modifiers come before the head), the Romance languages are usually right-branching.

In French, compound nouns are often formed by left-hand heads with prepositional components inserted before the modifier, as in chemin-de-fer 'railway' lit. 'road of iron' and moulin à vent 'windmill', lit. 'mill (that works)-by-means-of wind'.

In Turkish, one way of forming compound nouns is as follows: yeldeğirmeni ‘windmill’ (yel: wind, değirmen-i:mill-possessive); demiryolu 'railway'(demir: iron, yol-u: road-possessive).

D.   Verb–noun compounds

A type of compound that is fairly common in the Indo-European languages is formed of a verb and its object, and in effect transforms a simple verbal clause into a noun.

In Spanish, for example, such compounds consist of a verb conjugated for third person singular, present tense, indicative mood followed by a noun (usually plural): e.g., rascacielos (modelled on "skyscraper", lit. 'scratches skies'), sacacorchos ('corkscrew', lit. 'removes corks'), guardarropas ('wardrobe', lit. 'stores clothing'). These compounds are formally invariable in the plural (but in many cases they have been reanalyzed as plural forms, and a singular form has appeared). French and Italian have these same compounds with the noun in the singular form: Italian grattacielo, 'skyscraper'; French grille-pain, 'toaster' (lit. 'toasts bread') and torche-cul 'ass-wipe' (Rabelais: See his "propos torcheculatifs").

This construction exists in English, generally with the verb and noun both in uninflected form: examples are spoilsport, killjoy, breakfast, cutthroat, pickpocket, dreadnought, and know-nothing.

Also common in English is another type of verb–noun (or noun–verb) compound, in which an argument of the verb is incorporated into the verb, which is then usually turned into a gerund, such as breastfeeding, finger-pointing, etc. The noun is often an instrumental complement. From these gerunds new verbs can be made: (a mother) breastfeeds (a child) and from them new compounds mother-child breastfeeding, etc.

In the Australian Aboriginal language Jingulu, (a Pama–Nyungan language), it is claimed that all verbs are V+N compounds, such as "do a sleep", or "run a dive", and the language has only three basic verbs: do, make, and run.^{[citation needed]}

A special kind of composition is incorporation, of which noun incorporation into a verbal root (as in English backstabbing, breastfeed, etc.) is most prevalent  (see below).

E.   Verb–verb compounds

Verb–verb compounds are sequences of more than one verb acting together to determine clause structure. They have two types:

·         In a serial verb, two actions, often sequential, are expressed in a single clause. For example "turn leave", means "turn and leave", and  "go-conjunctive participle see-imperative", means "go and see". In each case, the two verbs together determine the semantics and argument structure

Serial verb expressions in English may include What did you go and do that for ?, or He just upped and left; this is however not quite a true compound since they are connected by a conjunction and the second missing arguments may be taken as a case of ellipsis.

·         In a compound verb (or complex predicate), one of the verbs is the primary, and determines the primary semantics and also the argument structure. The secondary verb, often called a vector verb or explicator, provides fine distinctions, usually in temporality or aspect, and also carries the inflection (tense and or agreement markers). The main verb usually appears in conjunctive participial (sometimes zero) form. For examples, "exit went", means 'went out', "exit fell", means 'departed' or 'was blurted out'.

·         Compound verb equivalents in English (examples from the internet):

What did you go and do that for?

If you are not giving away free information on your web site then a huge proportion of your business is just upping and leaving.

Big Pig, she took and built herself a house out of brush.

·         Caution: In descriptions of Persian and other Iranian languages the term 'compound verb' refers to noun-plus-verb compounds, not to the verb–verb compounds discussed here.

In English, words, particularly adjectives and nouns, are combined into compound structures in a variety of ways. And once they are formed, they sometimes metamorphose over time. A common pattern is that two words — fire fly, say — will be joined by a hyphen for a time — fire-fly — and then be joined into one word — firefly. In this respect, a language like German, in which words are happily and immediately linked one to the other, might seem to have an advantage. There is only one sure way to know how to spell compounds in English: use an authoritative dictionary.

F.    There are three forms of compound words:

a.    The closed form, in which the words are melded together, such as firefly, secondhand, softball, childlike, crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook.

b.    The hyphenated form, such as daughter-in-law, master-at-arms, over-the-counter, six-pack, six-year-old, mass-produced. For hyphenated forms, the pluralizing -s is usually attached to the element that is actually being pluralized: daughters-in-law, half-moons, mayors-elect. The Chicago Manual of Style says that "hyphenated and open compounds are regularly made plural by the addition of the plural inflection to the element that is subject to the change in number" and gives as examples "fathers-in-law," "sergeants-in-arms," "doctors of philosophy," "and courts-martial" (196). The NYPL Writer's Guide puts it this way: "the most significant word — generally the noun — takes the plural form. The significant word may be at the beginning, middle, or end of the term" (396). And then we get examples such as "attorneys at law," "bills of fare," chiefs of staff," notaries public," assistant attorneys general," "higher-ups," "also-rans," and "go-betweens."

c.    The open form, such as post office, real estate, middle class, full moon, half sister, attorney general.

G.   How a word modified by an adjective

             "A little school," "the yellow butter" — is different from a compound word — " a high school," "the peanut butter" — is a nice and philosophical question. It clearly has something to do with the degree to which the preceding word changes the essential character of the noun, the degree to which the modifier and the noun are inseparable. If you were diagramming a sentence with a compound word, you would probably keep the words together, on the same horizontal line.

Modifying compounds are often hyphenated to avoid confusion. The New York Public Library's Writer's Guide points out that an old-furniture salesman clearly deals in old furniture, but an old furniture salesman would be an old man. We probably would not have the same ambiguity, however, about a used car dealer. When compounded modifiers precede a noun, they are often hyphenated: part-time teacher, fifty-yard-wide field, fire-resistant curtains, high-speed chase. When those same modifying words come after the noun, however, they are not hyphenated: a field fifty yards wide, curtains that are fire resistant, etc. The second-rate opera company gave a performance that was first rate.

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are hyphenated when compounded with other modifiers: the highest-priced car, the shorter-term loan. But this is not always the case: the most talented youngster. Adverbs, words ending in -ly, are not hyphenated when compounded with other modifiers: a highly rated bank, a partially refunded ticket, publicly held securities.

Sometimes hyphenated modifiers lose their hyphens when they become compound nouns: A clear decision-making process was evident in their decision making. The bluish grey was slowly disappearing from the bluish-grey sky. This is not always so, however: your high-rise apartment building is also known as a high-rise.

When modifying a person with his or her age, the compounded phrase is hyphenated: my six-year-old son. However, when the age comes after the person, we don't use a hyphen. My son is six years old. He is, however, a six-year-old.

H.   Plurals and Possessives

Most dictionaries will give variant spellings of compound plurals. When you have more than one truck filled with sand, do you have several truckfuls or trucksful? The dictionary will give you both, with the first spelling usually preferred. (And the same is true of teaspoonfuls, cupfuls, etc.) The dictionary will help you discover that only one spelling is acceptable for some compounds — like passersby.

Some dictionaries will list "attorney generals" along with "attorneys general" as acceptable plurals of that office. Whether that's a matter of caving in to popular usage or an inability to determine the "significant word" is unknown.

The possessive of a hyphenated compound is created by attaching an apostrophe -s to the end of the compound itself: my daughter-in-law's car, a friend of mine's car. To create the possessive of pluralized and compounded forms, a writer is wise to avoid the apostrophe -s form and use an "of" phrase (the "post genitive") instead: the meeting of the daughters-in-law, the schedule of half-moons. Otherwise, the possessive form becomes downright weird: the daughters-in-law's meeting, friends of mine's cars.

One of the most difficult decisions to make about possessives and plurals of compound words occurs when you can't decide whether the first noun in a compound structure is acting as a noun that ought to be showing possession or as what is called an attributive noun, essentially an adjective. In other words, do we write that I am going to a writers conference or to a writers' conference? The Chicago Style Manual suggests that if singular nouns can act as attributive nouns — city government, tax relief — then plural nouns should be able to act as attributive nouns: consumers group, teachers union. This principle is not universally endorsed, however, and writers must remember to be consistent within a document.

I.      Compounds with Prefixes

With a handful of exceptions, compounds created by the addition of a prefix are not hyphenated:

anteroom, antisocial, binomial, biochemistry, coordinate, counterclockwise, extraordinary, infrastructure, interrelated, intramural, macroeconomics, metaphysical, microeconomics, midtown, minibike, multicultural, neoromantic, nonviolent, overanxious, postwar, preconference, pseudointellectual, reunify, semiconductor, socioeconomic, subpar, supertanker, transatlantic, unnatural, underdeveloped

a.    Exceptions include
compounds in which the second element is capitalized or a number:

anti-Semitic, pre-1998, post-Freudian

compounds which need hyphens to avoid confusion

un-ionized (as distinguished from unionized), co-op

compounds in which a vowel would be repeated (especially to avoid confusion)

co-op, semi-independent, anti-intellectual (but reestablish, reedit)

compounds consisting of more than one word

non-English-speaking, pre-Civil War

compounds that would be difficult to read without a hyphen

pro-life, pro-choice, co-edited

Also, when we combine compound nouns, we would use a hyphen with the first, but not the last: when under- and overdeveloped nations get together.

by: one spirit group